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Eva

Is this way right?

Some practical advice on finding and staying on the right way

Usually, the first sign that the way you’re going isn’t right is when it doesn’t match up with expected key waypoints. Remember that if enough bushwalkers make the same mistake, a new way will form. Very confusing!

Bushwalking ways are typically made by clearing vegetation, removing obstacles such as logs and compacting the soil or bringing in rocks etc. Common features to bushwalking ways include:

  • Cleared vegetation including cut logs (i.e. chainsawed trees)
  • Compacted soil or stones
  • Footprints
  • Signposts
  • Cairns (piles of rocks)

Ways that are faint or don’t include these features may not be right, and should start to raise alarm bells! Other signs that you’re not on the main way include:

  • The way leads to areas inaccessible to humans
  • The way weaves back upon itself
  • The way splits multiple times
  • The way leads off from the main route to a water source or shelter

The number one rule when things in the landscape don’t match with what you expect is to stop. Have a good think about where you last knew where you were, and return to that location. In doing so, you return to a spot where you are certain of the location on the map and can trace out where you went wrong. Most likely you missed a turn or there was a faint junction that you missed.

Picking up the way again How to find the way after losing it

Some bushwalking ways weave back and forth across rivers, cross large open rock platforms, or meander through urban villages before emerging on the other side and continuing. It’s easy to lose the way in these cases, as it’s not entirely clear where or how the way rejoins again. Here are a few tips to find the way again.

River crossings
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Some bushwalking ways end at the river side, implying that the route crosses over and starts again directly on the other side.

Before crossing, double check that the way indeed crosses over, rather than continuing along the same river bank. Do this by having a quick scout around on the side of the bank you’re on, and looking over to the other side. Sometimes, there’s a clear sign where the way starts again, or there’s a signpost, a small arrow, or a marker. Don’t be surprised though if the way only becomes visible once you’re on the other side: many river crossings are implied rather than signposted.

Assess if the river is safe to cross. Then choose where to cross the river, bearing in mind that this might involve detouring slightly upstream or downstream of the path. Then continue along the way again.

If you cannot pick up the way again after the river crossing, cross back to the way you were on and go back to the last known point. You may have accidentally strayed from the main way, or picked up a way leading off the main one to the river (typical for lunch or swimming spots).

Maps are not that reliable when it comes to river crossings. Ways change over time, and where the way originally crossed the river, it may not do so any more.

The best general advice is to follow the main way whenever given a choice. That is, if the main way continues on one side of the river and you spot another smaller way on the other side of the river, then don’t cross over, stick to the main one. Conversely, if the main way continues on the other side of the river, and only a minor one follows on the same side, cross over.

Townships
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Walks often pass through small urban towns when going from one section of bush to another. It is particularly common on multiday trips, for example, the Great North Walk.

As ironic as it sounds, it can be quite easy to lose the way through a township due to poor signage, or changes to the route due to development. Often the way may disappear at one edge of the town, and bushwalkers need to pick it up at the other side, but it’s not always entirely clear where to do it. Remember that maps may not have up to date information on housing development, particularly on the edges of urban townships. Hence, it can be embarrassingly easy to miss where the way starts again in an urban area!

The good news is that it’s usually pretty straightforward to figure it out. If the way doesn’t have obvious signposts, why not try dropping into the local cafe and chatting to the owners? Most locals are keen to talk about their local bushwalks, and they can probably give you some great advice on where to pick up the way again. Be sensitive to ways that pass through private properties and make sure to ask permission before using them.

In this day and age, modern townships usually mean reasonable mobile phone reception. Google maps may provide useful satellite data on where bushwalking ways start and stop. Even tourist websites and blogs can help.

Failing all that, you can usually work out where the way goes by a process of elimination: if the way comes into the township from the south, it’s going to leave via the North, East or West side. If there’s major bushland on the northern part of the township, then that’s a good place to start scouting out for the way. Roads that are dead ends onto bushland are likely candidates for where the way continues.

Being lost in a township can be quite an enjoyable experience, particularly if there’s a nice place to stop for ice-cream en-route!

Rock platforms
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Bushwalking tracks will often cross rock platforms, large open slabs of rock with a small amount of vegetation growing between the rock cracks. From a trackmaker’s point of view, including a section of rock is much less work than having to lug in rocks or create a track themselves. It takes little work to maintain and is easy walking for visitors. The downside is that most rock platforms are around 10-20m wide and bushwalkers have to find the track again on the other side. Putting signs on every single rock platform is impractical, so bushwalkers are usually left to locate the track on their own.

In general, a track that goes in on one side of the rock platform forms again on the opposite side of the platform…but not always! On rock platforms where the track continuation is ambiguous, many smaller tracks form where bushwalkers have thought the track continues. This is a big problem for local wildlife and plants due to soil erosion and compaction damage.

Best practice is to avoid using smaller side tracks to scout out the main track. Stay on the rock platform until it’s clear your group has found the correct track. If the track turns out to be wrong, backtrack until you know where you are again.

Rock platforms make for easy walking compared to rough scrub, but be sensitive towards delicate rock formations. Around Sydney, the sandstone pagoda country is stunningly beautiful but extraordinarily delicate. Rock pagodas formed over millennia are easily broken by careless bushwalkers stepping on their edges. Tread lightly and Leave No Trace!

Sandy areas
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Coastal walks often involve walking in parts along beaches. It’s a great opportunity to take your shoes off and feel the sand on your feet. Finding the way again is usually pretty straightforward, but the way may not be well signposted, or the signs only works well if you’re walking in a particular direction.

A typical setup is where the way joins at one end of the beach and leaves at the other end.
slide1

A few variations on this include:

  • The route continues next to beach, and joins beach halfway along.
    slide2
  • The route leaves beach halfway along.
    slide3
  • The route never joins beach.
    slide4

Once again, a map of the route may not be a reliable guide to where the route goes. Routes along beaches may change with tides, or be hidden by shifting sand. It can be worth contacting local land rangers to ask about the current condition of the route first.

Leave no Trace by walking on the hard sand nearest the ocean and avoid walking on delicate sand dunes as much as possible. Spread out to even out footprints on the sand.

What do I do if I’m lost? Finding yourself again, a practical guide

It can be a frightening experience to feel lost in the bush, even if that feeling is momentary. It’s a reminder of how very small humans are in the world, and how much unknown landscape there is.

Finding the way again when you’re lost is all about remaining calm, staying logical and keeping a clear head despite every other emotion you’re feeling. It’s about everyone in the group contributing to the navigation decisions {see group navigation post} and backtracking to the last known place.

The biggest mistake a bushwalking group can make it to press on further. It’s tempting just to check what’s around the next corner, maybe there’s a sign there, maybe another track…? The reality is, going further onwards will almost always make things worse, not better! While it may feel like a waste of time and energy, stopping and backtracking means that you can reaffirm exactly where you are and if you went wrong.

Here’s a general set of guidelines to follow if you don’t know where you are:

  1. Stop. Go through a deductive and logical reasoning process to figure out where you are from the last known point. Ask questions like:
    1. Did we cross a creek? Is the creek flowing the direction it should be?
    2. Did we climb a hill? Was it smaller or larger than expected?
    3. What direction are we going in? Does this make sense?
    4. Did we pass any forks?
    5. How fast are we traveling? What’s the furthest we can be from the last known point
  2. Use navigation tools, like a GPS or compass to help.
    Most of the time, this is enough to help you figure out where you are. Most often, it’s because you’re moving slower than you expected, or took a wrong turning.
    If you cannot determine your location through a deductive and logical reasoning process.
  3. Backtrack to the last known point.
    After backtracking, you’ll probably figure out where you went wrong in the first place and can continue along the correct way.
    If you cannot backtrack to the last known point (e.g. poor weather conditions, visibility).
  4. Stop. Consider waiting until weather conditions improve.
    If you are completely lost and have exhausted all other means of finding yourself, contact the emergency services by telephone (if reception) or activating a PLB.

Navigational tools

Tools to help you navigate in the bush

Map and compass spring to mind at the mention of navigation tools, but they’re not the only tools out there. Technological advances in GPS devices and mobile phones means that more people have access to navigation tools than ever before. All have their pros and cons, and it’s worth bearing them in mind when selecting what tools to take on a walk.

Navigation

Navigating in the bush

Navigation is the art of getting from one place to another. It’s about making a plan around how to get from place A to place B, and then actually getting from A to B.

While navigation may seem like a big and scary topic, everyone can navigate! Think about it: every morning you get up, navigate from the bedroom to the bathroom and then out the front door. Navigating in the bush is the same, it’s just a little more complex. Learning to navigate around your house just means learning a few routes and remembering them. But in the bush, navigation involves working out and following a new route each time, and the landmarks are unfamiliar. There’s also more pressure to get it right on a bushwalk because getting lost in the bush is a bigger deal than getting lost in your hallway!

Navigation is a skill acquired by experience, study, and observation. It takes a long time to master. When starting out, it’s easy to be wrong. Unfortunately, the only way to get better is to persevere and keep on going! Navigation is a fun skill to learn, and many bushwalkers find that learning to navigate gives them a whole new appreciation of the landscape.

Canoeing and Kayaking

Some helpful links to get started

NSW has some fantastic canoeing and kayaking spots. Even Sydney, a city of more than 4 million people, is surrounded by plenty of options for flatwater kayakers.

Here are some great resources to build up your paddling skills:

http://www.rivercanoeclub.org/flatwater-skills
http://www.rivercanoeclub.org/sites/default/files/policy/RiverCanoeClubCompetencies2013.pdf
http://www.nswseakayaker.asn.au/index.php/homepage/basic-skills
http://www.nswseakayaker.asn.au/index.php/homepage/about-the-club/paddler-grading-system

Happy canoeing and kayaking!

Canyoning

Some helpful links to get started

NSW is blessed with an amazing number of canyons, that is, narrow cuttings through rocks formed by running water. Around Sydney, canyons are typically ‘slot’ canyons. Slot canyons are surrounded by high walls of rock, and limited light reaches the water in the bottom.

Canyoning is the activity of following a watercourse through a canyon. It usually involves bushwalking to an upper section of the watercourse, following the water for a while, then exiting via a bushwalking route at the bottom. Often, canyoning involves scrambling, swimming, abseiling, jumping, balancing, climbing and anything else required to travel downstream. Some canyons have well-worn tracks to get in; others are accessed purely by off-track navigation.

Canyoning is a fun activity but requires a significant amount of technical knowledge and skills.

Find out more here:
http://ozultimate.com/canyoning/
http://climbingadventures.com.au/canyoning-blue-mountains/canyoning-courses

Happy canyoning!

P.s. Did you know that people go ‘kanyaking’ on Reunion Island? It’s a mixture of kayaking and canyoning!

Abseiling

Some helpful links to get started

Abseiling or ‘rappelling’ is a fun activity where you use ropes to make your way from the top of a cliff or steep incline to the bottom. It’s done in areas where it’s impossible to make your way safely down by foot. Taken to its extreme, abseilers can rig up multiple ropes one after the other and descend cliffs that are several hundreds of metres high.

Abseiling is a technical skill that takes time to learn and requires specific gear also.

Find out more from these links:

http://climbingadventures.com.au/abseiling-blue-mountains/abseiling-courses
http://ozultimate.com/canyoning/abseiling/

Camping

Some helpful links to get started

Camping is always great fun for everyone. It’s a way of getting out of the city, relaxing, spending time with good friends and enjoying some delicious treats.

NSW has many camping spots to choose from. We certainly are spoilt!

Here are some websites with general information to get started:

http://www.gocampingaustralia.com/
http://www.outbackcrossing.com.au/Camping/Camping_Tips_and_Hints.shtml
http://wikicamps.com.au/

Happy camping!

Water Collection Points

Where to find water in the bush

Bushwalkers usually collect water from natural sources like creeks, rivers, lakes, and soaks they find on the route or a short way off it. These supplies change with season and rainfall, and some are more reliable than others – often those rivers that are fed by smaller creeks.

Care must be taken to choose sources that are reliable, and backups must be in place in areas where water availability is variable. Sometimes, bushwalkers might have to carry enough water supplies to get to a backup water source or walk out. In some regions with high numbers of visitors or unreliable water supplies, tanks have been provided by management.

Natural water sources How to find reliable natural water sources

Natural water sources include creeks, rivers, lakes, and soaks that run over the ground, natural collection points such as cave drips and tree crevices, as well as water sources that run deep below the ground.

Where to look:

  • Check the map to determine the lay of the land. Dotted blue lines represent seasonal (non-perennial) creeks, whereas solid blue lines are more permanent (perennial) waterways, although these can also run dry. Examine the topology and watch out for steep edges or cliffs that are impassable. Small catchments are more likely to be a clean source or water, whereas larger creeks with more sources of input are more likely to be running. But beware of relying too heavily upon a map for information: water courses can change, and man-made features such as mines and farms can dramatically affect water flow in natural areas surrounding them.
  • Places where water naturally pools such as low-lying areas, valleys or gullies.
  • Always go downhill. Water follows gravity downwards, so when looking for water follow the lay of the land downhill. Gullies that appear dry higher up often start to flow at lower elevations. Often, following a gully downwards can lead to water.
  • Search rock crevices, tree crotches, rock pools, drips from cave overhangs, or other natural water catchments where rainwater may have collected.
  • Patches of healthy green vegetation, plants typically found near water (e.g. wattles, she-oaks) and damp or muddy ground. These all indicate some source of water which may be possible to access by digging.
  • The presence of animals: mammals, insect and birds tend to stick close to water sources, and these are often places where animal tracks converge. Birds often circle watering holes, and the flight direction can be used to detect water sources. The formation of seed-eating birds changes as they approach water from a random clustering to an ordered and neat formation.

Ideally, water should be collected from clean sources, that flow from pristine natural areas, but if there is doubt, then treat water. Treatments for water sources contaminated with pathogens include boiling, chemical or UV treatments.

Pathogen contamination can come from:

  • Farms: Animal faeces
  • Popular campsites and huts with many visitors: human faeces

Water contaminated with toxins, fertilisers and heavy metals cannot be treated in the field, and bushwalkers should avoid these water sources. Examples of this kind of contamination include:

  • Mines and factories (e.g. above the Wolgan River)
  • Pesticide and fertiliser run-off from farms (e.g. Cox’s River downstream from the Megalong Valley farms)
  • Towns that are above walking areas, such as in the Blue Mountains

Handy tips:

  • Check with local land managers or authorities about current water conditions on the track. Find out as much information before heading out into the bush.
  • Share information about water sources with other walkers on the track.
  • When filling up at water sources, try to drink as much as possible (if the water can be treated and drunk immediately), before filling water containers as this maximises the time needed between water sources.
  • Listen out for flowing water. Keeping an ear out for trickling water is an easy way of locating a water source. Although traveling down a gully can be an effective way of finding water, it can be challenging due to the thicker scrub and vines that tend to grow there. Sometimes it’s easier to follow a parallel ridge downhill and listen for flowing water and only duck into the gully occasionally to check for water.

Special environments:

  • Desert: never walk in desert conditions without being confident about water availability. Water is rarely found running on the surface, but can be dug for in a dry river bed: preferably choose a section where the river is under shade for most of the day and dig into the outside of the bend. Digging can yield some water, particularly if there has been flash flooding and water has been stored beneath the surface. However, digging for water can be energy intensive and yield poor results, so apply caution. It may be better to conserve energy resources and focus on doing things that maximise the chance of rescue.
  • Alpine environments tend to have high rainfall where water is often trickling close to the surface. Hence, it’s possible to find running water at high elevations. Snow can be melted and used as drinking water.
  • Coastal: Care must be taken to select fresh water sources as drinking salt water leads to dehydration and higher concentrations of salt than the human body can handle. Potable water can be found above the high tide mark, where fresh water and salt water sources cannot mix. A small cascade above the high tide mark is a good place to start looking for water. Large bodies of water near oceans can have salt water for some distance upstream, so the chances of finding potable water increase dramatically when looking for a smaller source, perhaps one that feeds that larger body of water. According to “The 10 Bushcraft Books” by Richard Graves:

“Fresh water can always be found along the sea coast by digging behind the wind-blown sandhills which back most ocean beaches. These sandhills trap rain water, and it floats on top of the heavier salt water which filters in from the ocean. Sandhill wells must be only deep enough to uncover the top inch or two (2.5 or 5 cm) of water. If dug deeper, salt water will be encountered and the water from the well may be brackish and undrinkable. It will be noticed, too, that the water in these wells rises and falls slightly with the tides. These sand wells are a completely reliable source of water all over the world. When digging it is necessary to revet the sides with brushwood, otherwise the sand will fall into the well.”

water collection_1

“On coastal areas where cliffs fall into a sea a careful search along the lower edges of the cliff will generally disclose soaks or small springs. These in general follow a fault in the rock formation and frequently are evident by a lush growth of ferns and mosses.”

Warnings:

  • Avoid stagnant or coloured water sources, as these are more likely to be contaminated.
  • Avoid drinking urine until it is a life or death scenario. First, extinguish all other sources of clean or dirty water.

Taps and tanks How to find reliable taps and tanks on a bushwalk

Hunts and formal campsites usually have taps and rainwater tanks, however, it’s not always easy to get information on the current condition of the tank or how full it is. Tanks are susceptible to damage from wild weather, corrosion and contamination from animals (faeces or dead animals falling in), and water can become stagnant is not refilled and emptied regularly. Also, how full a tank is depends on precipitation and the number of users. Low rainfall, a high number of users or both can lead to a low tank.

The best way to get information on tank conditions is to ask someone else that has visited the site recently (preferably within the last fortnight). Alternatively, national parks websites may give current information on water availability at population sites, but a short phone call to the appropriate land manager or ranger is likely to be more reliable. Beware of relying on maps that show man-made water sources: in general, printed maps are made using data that is several years old, and infrastructure out in natural places can quickly change.

Since the water in tanks comes from the runoff over rooftops and guttering, it’s a good idea to treat it because these structures are likely to collect animal dropping and other natural waste. Likewise, tap water in campgrounds is usually pumped from a nearby water source that is likely to be contaminated from the toileting facilities nearby.

Tank water is a precious resource and bushwalkers must take care not to waste it. Use tank water for drinking and cooking, but avoid using it for excessive dishwashing or showering. For example, when washing billies use a small amount of water, and perhaps use that water to wash other items. There’s also the problem of poor hygiene, with people washing their hands and touching the spout of the water tank. Certainly, it should be kept clean, but if the only available water is from a tank, then wash with as little water as possible, and never directly from or near the tank; use a personal water container, at a distance.

Lastly, if relying on man-made a water source (e.g. tank, reservoir), take into account that parts break. Apart from just wearing out, alpine environments are not kind to tanks, pipes and taps, which can burst when water freezes. In summer, there’s not a lot that can be done in the field if a water tank with a solid lid has a seized tap. Best to find another water source and report any damage to the park manager as soon as possible.

Other water sources How to source other types of water supplies on a bushwalk

With some skill and effort, water can also be obtained by engineering man-made tools to collect rain water or transpiration from plants, and also by breaking open tree roots or eating certain plants (e.g. succulent plants).

Rainwater run-off
Rainwater run-off is an easy way to obtain water: just leave a few billies out overnight and after a moderate rainfall, they’ll be full in the morning. If collection containers are limited, it’s possible to rig up the outer fly of the tent so that water drains more quickly and directly into a billy or pot. Likewise, collected rain run-off from huts is an effective way of collecting water, although most huts have a rainwater tank that is more efficient.

Snowmelt
With some patience, snow can be melted to produce drinking water providing the group has sufficient gas and time to do so. In most cases, snow should be melted and the water boiled to treat for contamination by pathogens.

Dew
Sufficient dew may collect overnight in areas where there are few or no trees so that it can be possible to collect enough of this water to survive. Run a rag or tufts of grass over the dew on the ground and squeeze out the moisture to drink. While this technique doesn’t produce much water, it may assist in emergency scenarios.

Plants
Pig Weed, Pig Face (Carpobrotus) and Ice Plant (Parakylia) contain enough moisture to drink from. It’s also possible to obtain water from tree roots {http://www.survival.org.au/water.php}, although the process is undoubtedly damaging to the tree, and only to be used in emergency situations.

Transpiration
Plants transpire water throughout the day as they absorb sunlight and convert it to energy via photosynthesis. It’s possible to collect this water by tying a bag over the leaves of a plant.

Moisture condensation
A solar still can be used to collect water by using the heat of the sun to evaporate, cool and collect it. Using the sun to collect water is an emergency technique that takes substantial setup but can yield between 0.5-2.5 litres depending on conditions.

Predicting Water Availability

How to reliably predict water availability in the bush

Natural water sources can be perennial (flow all year round) or non-perennial (intermittent). Whether a natural water source contains water depends on physical variables like temperature, rainfall and humidity. A bushwalking group looking for a water source has to decide on how likely a watercourse is to contain water, if the water is in sufficient quantity to collect, if the water is accessible (i.e. not down a steep embankment or with a wall of blackberries), and ideally, not needing treatment.

Natural variables How do natural variables affect water availability

A crucial natural variable for the amount of water availability in the bush is the amount of recent rainfall, which varies with:

  1. Location: Coastal and northern Australia and Tasmania experience higher levels of rainfall than central and western Australia.
    au rain fall
    Therefore, walking the Overland Track in Tasmania is less likely to present water issues than the Larapinta Trail in the Northern Territory.
  2. Season: Australia contains both temperate, tropical and arid regions that have different rainfall regimes. In general, the northern parts of the country have summer rains, and the Southern have winter rains. The east coast has moist temperate conditions with hot summers, but thunderstorms with rainfall are common during the summer months too. Cooler months mean less evaporation of potable water sources.
    aust-climate-map
    In general, rainfall across Australia is low and seasonal with many water courses only appearing after rainfall.
  3. El Niño and La Niña Phenomena: The air pressure index between Tahiti and Darwin is used to calculated the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). El Niño is characterised by a strongly negative index, often leading to lower winter and spring rainfall in eastern Australia, and a weaker monsoon up north. By contrast, La Niña is characterised by a strongly positive index, with higher winter and spring rainfall in eastern Australia and higher rainfall during the tropical wet season.

Other important factors are:

  1. Altitude: water flows downhill and is more likely to collect at lower altitudes than higher ones.
  2. Area of the catchment: the larger the catchment area, the more likely the source is to contain water because it has a larger area feeding into it.
  3. Soil type: soil absorbs water at different rates depending on the porosity and permeability of the ground. Hence, the total amount of groundwater available and where other water sources can surface in that environment is a function of the soil type there.

Global warming is leading to drier conditions, and availability is changing and decreasing in some places1.

Accessibility and availability How do predict water supplies in sufficient accessibility and availability

Adequate planning before a bushwalking trip allows the group to devise ways to manage obstacles like sheer cliffs, blackberries, and thick scrub that may obstruct water sources. In general, going along the riverbank may lead to easier access. The group may find a secondary source that has less flow but is accessible.

In practical terms, predicting water accessibility and availability comes down to good knowledge of the land, experience with how local weather patterns affect flow, and an understanding of how clean that water source is. While this knowledge can take years to accumulate, a good starting point is talking to land managers and other people who have recently walked in that area.